10 Connections: Enslaved Persons with Enslavers

Tracing the Enslaver's records may be the key to uncovering information on our enslaved ancestors. As a brickwall expert, I also use these records to distinguish common-named enslavers. The enslaved names may be my only clue between that Wm. Smith and the other Wm. Smith.

Objective: Did you know the connection may be found after 1865? Marriage records, death records, wills, deeds, and court records, plus more, may make this connection for you. You just have to dig! Here are examples and 10 suggestions to add to your Research Checklist:

This blog is part of the Connecting Enslaved Persons with Enslavers: The Unexpected presentation.

The following ten research resources should be added to your enslaved / enslaver Research Checklist. Get used to seeing the enslaver and the enslaved person having different surnames (family names).  

This post purposely does not cover the Freedman Bureau. Most are familiar with  Freedman's Bureau, and it is not often overlooked. However, the Freedman Bureau did not reach all of the states or communities. So, this blog post is not about low-hanging fruit, where we expect to see enslavers' names, but where we might not see them. Since we are working with brickwall research, we need to leave no paper trail untouched.

Note: I was going to transcribe the following records for you. But decided this is a learning opportunity.  You can just as easily use AI (try ChatGPT) to help with the transcribing.  Of course, the familysearch.org links also have transcriptions for their records below. Great time to test your AI  skills. 

1.  Marriage Records

In Upson, GA, it was common.  Actually, in many areas, it was common. We also see this in Caldwell, NC, 1866-1872. It was the best way to distinguish which Tom married Mary, which John married Betty, and which William married Tempy.  Here is just one page of registered marriages of former enslaved persons. 

FamilySearch: Upson Marriage Records, 1868-1876

2.  Death Records

Yeah, I know...death records, especially those 50 years after the Civil War, rarely host the enslaver's name.  But this is one of a half dozen or so that we have unearthed as a tool to beat down that brickwall. This record also confirmed that Anderson Stanton's former enslaver was Charles S. Bruce.  Even more special, Staton's parents were named

Familysearch, Virginia Death Certificate, 1914

3.  Apprentice  Court Record

After the Civil War, many of the formerly enslaved were established as apprentices through their former enslaver.  These apprentice agreements were not only put in place, but they were often witnessed by the former enslaver. 

Logan (KY) Court Records, 1870-1870

4.  Orphans Court Records

There are times (ok, always) that additional background to a court record is needed.  But in Howard County, MD, there were several records in the court proceedings after the war that asked formerly enslaved persons to justify why their formerly enslaved child, underage,  "should NOT be bound as an apprentice.  Again, this is one example in one county, in one state. However, this practice was not unique to Maryland. 

Howard County, MD Orphans Court Proceedings, Sept 1864; Image 141/715

5. Southern Claims Commission 

It's important to know that the practice of tying a former enslaved person to a former enslaver can be found in very deep southern states. The Southern Claims Commission record collection is replete with such connections like this one from Benton, Mississippi, where the former enslaved person witnessed for their former enslaver, or vice versa. Yes, the former enslavers were also credible witnesses for their enslaved people. We see this especially when an enslaver had gifted a donkey or tool, but that gift was taken as war bounty, or to assist the war efforts.. 

Southern Claims Commission, Benton, MS, 1871 - 1880

6.  The local newspaper.  Really, that's not the first place you looked?  I know most people won't get this lucky, but I have found over a dozen for clients. 

The Courier Journal, Louisville, KY, 29 Dec 1906

Plus, if you are looking for that missing ancestor, the newspapers reported the gory parts too: 

The Daily Galveston, TX, Jul 1890

7.  Wills and Probates

We know not all enslaved persons took their enslaver's surname.  Matter of fact, many kept an earlier surname, perhaps from the previous enslaver or the enslaver of their childhood.  Either way, it makes tracing our enslaved ancestors challenging to trace. Or maybe they are just making sure we are not being lazy! Ancestors can be filled with folly and tricks!

So, when I look at the Brunswick County, VA Will, dated 1875, years after the Civil War, we not only get the ancestor's name of Alfred Wilkes, we are also able to confirm his former enslaver, W. W. Tally, also had a "former slave" Archer Fagans. 

Brunswick County, VA, will Books, 1875

8.  Deed books

We've all seen it.  The enslaver bequeaths freedom along with property to enslaved people in their Wills, or emancipates them at a particular age. For a no-question court case, the former enslaver is often named. This is a direct path for pulling all associated records (wills, deeds, probates, etc) to prove ownership of land.  

Campbell County, VA, Deed Book 1874 -1877

9. Military Records

It's not enough to know that your enslaved ancestor served in the Civil War. Your key to reconstructing your enslaved ancestor's records and family may be buried in the Military Records. 

Military Service Records, familysearch.org, 1861 - 1865

Many of these letters are in the Adjutant General's office also. 

10.  Territorial Records

Mention to me African Americans' research in early territories - LA, MO, IL, FL, (ok...all of them) and you will get my "panda" cuddly face🐼.  I love these records.  There are territorial church records, mostly for the French and Spanish Code Noir and Catholic sacraments, that name "former slave of ..." or "slave of..." Keep in mind that a common early practice was to emancipate the enslaved ones at a certain age, upon completion of specified years of service,  or upon the death of the enslaver. Some researchers, like myself, translated many entries for books and finding aids. Territorial Records are usually located in local repositories, but be sure to check your regional National Archives.

Here's a blog that may assist you with this research: 5 Resources to Tracing Missouri Territorial Ancestors.  The rules apply, in general, across all early territories. 

Here's what an abstract / transcript looks like: 

Meridian, Evangeline, Louisiana; 1733-1735

I know I can go on forever.  This is just an excerpt of the Connecting Enslaved Persons with Enslavers presentation. 

4 Ways Your Confederate Regained Citizenship

Citizenship After the Civil War
When the Civil War ended, most ordinary Confederates were not permanently barred from regaining U.S. citizenship. During the Confederacy, the concept of "denaturalization," or the process of revoking a person’s citizenship, did not exist in a formalized way as it does today.

However, the secession of Southern states and the establishment of the Confederate States of America created a unique situation regarding citizenship and loyalty, which raised questions about the legal status of individuals in the Confederacy. The term “denaturalization” raises an important question.

 Strictly speaking, denaturalization is the legal process of revoking the citizenship of naturalized immigrants. Naturalized immigrants are those who gained citizenship through legal procedures, not by birth. Since nearly all Confederates were U.S.-born, they were not technically denaturalized. Instead, the secession crisis created a legal gray area: the Confederate States treated them as Confederate citizens, while the Union viewed them as U.S. citizens in rebellion. Their loyalty and rights were suspended rather than formally revoked.

Finding Ancestors in Amnesty and Oath Records

After the Civil War, Confederates regained U.S. citizenship through several overlapping legal and political measures. Here are the four ways: 

1. Oath of Allegiance: Most ordinary soldiers and citizens simply swore loyalty to the United States to be readmitted. This was the most common route back into the Union.
2. Amnesty: Presidents Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson issued amnesty proclamations. These blanket acts forgave groups of former Confederates, though Johnson’s versions often excluded high-ranking officials, wealthy planters, and officers until they applied individually.
3. Pardons: For those excluded from general amnesty, Johnson offered personal pardons. Confederate leaders or men of wealth had to petition him directly, often writing letters of contrition and requesting forgiveness.
4. Congressional Acts: Later legislation, including the Fourteenth Amendment and subsequent laws, clarified or restored political rights, though lingering restrictions meant not all citizenship rights were immediately equal.

Together, these steps meant that while ordinary Confederates rejoined the Union quickly, elite leaders often navigated a more complex path of petitions, oaths, and presidential discretion.high-ranking political and military leaders, however, faced stricter terms. President Andrew Johnson’s amnesty proclamations (1865–1867) opened the door for many former Confederates, and Congress’s Amnesty Act of 1872 restored citizenship rights to the majority.

Where Are the Records?

• Oaths of Allegiance – available at the National Archives, state archives, and some county courthouses.

• Presidential Pardon Applications – case files (NARA, RG 94) from individuals excluded from general amnesty.

• Southern Claims Commission Records – proof of loyalty claims from Southerners seeking compensation (Ancestry/Fold3).

• State Archives – collections of postwar oaths and pardon lists, especially in former Confederate states.

• Military Service and Parole Records – Confederate service files and parole records at surrender sites often include signed oaths.

Denaturalization Under the Law
Though the Confederates were not legally denaturalized, the practice has existed in U.S. law at other times. In the early 20th century, denaturalization became a tool of the federal government, particularly during the Red Scare and World War II. Naturalized citizens accused of disloyalty, communism, or subversion risked losing their citizenship. Cases appeared even in the 1940s. One example was reported in the Press of Atlantic City. These proceedings took place in September 1942.

Press of Atlantic City, Atlantic City, New Jersey, Sep 9, 1942

Citizenship in the United States has often been defined not only by law but by shifting ideas of loyalty and national identity. 

To Us: 1787 More Than Signing Constitution

Happy Signing Constitution Day and Citizenship Day
Yes, signing the Constitution was "cool" on 17 Sep 1787. It also honors all U.S. citizens, whether native-born or naturalized, and promotes understanding of the Constitution's role in American democracy.

Yes, signing the Constitution was "cool" on 17 Sept of that year. But this year has a lot of significance to genealogical researchers. It's also the year that saved the day for reconstructing lost early records, especially, in VA. I often choose to show this process using VA, because the 1790 census are not available. 

Ok...I'm sure this is confusing but there was a Virginia "census" (actually a Tax List) in 1787, not a federal or state census. It was actually a compilation of personal property lists from the 1780s, often called the 1787 Census of Virginia by genealogists.

Did you know?

familysearch.org

The 1787 "Virginia Census" isn’t just a headcount, it’s a treasure for genealogists! This is great news since the 1790 Census were destroyed presumably in the War of 1812. The 1787 Virginia Census lists households, taxable property, and enslaved people, offering a snapshot of families between the Revolution and the first U.S. Census of 1790.  For researchers, it bridges a critical gap, helping trace ancestors, land ownership, and community ties in early Virginia. Although I'm talking VA here, this technique can be used to reconstruct other lost census records. 

Outline of the information that can be extracted:

• Names/~Ages White Males:
  Names of white males over 21 years of age and white males between 16 and 21 years old.
• Slave Population:
  
  Information on the number of slaves; regardless of age (over or under age of 16).
• Livestock and Carriages:
  
  Listings of horses, cattle, and carriages.
• Tavern Keepers:
  
  Names of individuals who held tavern licenses

Most women were left out of the 1787 Virginia “census” (tax lists). But widows or unmarried women who headed households could appear! For example, “Widow Johnson” was listed as a taxpayer in Mecklenburg County. These rare entries are golden clues for tracing female ancestors in early Virginia because white females were never considered tithables themselves (i.e., taxed as a tithable person). But if they were head of household (widows or unmarried), or owned taxable property, their names show up as the “person chargeable.”

In some cases Virginia's “Personal Property Tax Lists” (beginning 1782‐) named female heads of households.

Case Study: How to Use these Records
The following is a sample case study to understand what can be uncovered. Let's see if you can duplicate these results, or try it on your own ancestor. And, it doesn't have to be Virginia. 

Virginia. Court Records 

Happy Signing Constitution Day and Citizenship Day

Promises and Pitfalls of Oral History

  Evening Star, Oct 08, 1881 ·Page 3

Keep Oral History in Perspective
After posting our podcast, Tell Me A Story Program, we had lots of questions on the accuracy, reliability, and/or storytellers' liberal remembrances. So we thought we should make sure our readers and listeners keep oral history in perspective.

Every family has that one storyteller. Maybe it’s your grandmother at the kitchen table, weaving tales about “the old country.” Or an uncle who swears he remembers a long-lost cousin who “headed west and struck it rich.” These voices pull us in. They don’t just hand us names and dates; they hand us a heartbeat. That’s the magic of oral history for genealogists and family historians.

But, like every treasure, oral history comes with its cracks.

Why We Treasure Stories

The Waynesburg Republican

Think back to the first time you heard a family story that made you lean in closer. Maybe it was about a soldier who never came home, a farm washed away in a flood, or an ancestor who could “cure a fever with nothing but herbs.” These stories paint pictures no census record ever could. They give us personality, emotion, and a glimpse of who our people really were.

For communities whose histories weren’t always written down, oral tradition was often the only way to keep memories alive. Without those stories, whole chapters of our shared past might have vanished.

And let’s be honest: sometimes oral history gives us the breadcrumb trail we need. A half-remembered name, the mention of a town, or the memory of a neighbor can open the door to records we’d never have thought to search. 

But Stories Have Shadows

The trouble is, memory is slippery. Ask three siblings about the same childhood event, and you’ll likely get three different stories. Dates blur. Names shift. Sometimes tales grow taller with each retelling, passed down like a family heirloom polished until it barely resembles the original.

And then there’s silence.

The Sun, Feb 15, 1880 ·Page 3

Families often leave certain things unsaid. Topics like illegitimacy, lost children, mental illness, or conflicts are often swept under the rug. What we don’t hear in oral history can be just as telling as what we do.

The hardest part? Once a storyteller passes, those memories go with them. Unless we’ve taken the time to record, transcribe, or preserve the stories, the voices fade. That’s a loss we can’t recover.

How We Can Honor the Stories

So what do we do, as family historians? We listen carefully, but we also question kindly. We record, not just on paper, but with our phones, with audio or video, so future generations hear the voices themselves. We ask open-ended questions: “Tell me what it was like…” instead of “Was it 1937 or 1938?”

And we remember that oral history is a guide, not a guarantee. It’s the spark that leads us to deeds, obituaries, or immigration records where we can confirm, or sometimes correct the information with facts proven by data.

A Final Word

Oral history is like sitting by the fire with your ancestors. It warms, it illuminates, and sometimes it even crackles with surprises. It doesn’t replace the paper trail, but it makes the trail worth following.

So, next time you’re at a family gathering, lean in. Ask the questions. Capture the laughter, the tears, the pauses. Because someday, someone will thank you for preserving not just the facts—but the voices behind them.

Measles & More: Researching Disease (1657-1963)

Reported by USA and Canadian Outlets: Polio (with vaccine) vs Measles in USA, 1958 - 1959

Tracing measles isn’t just about death; it’s uncovering how the disease shaped family decisions, movements, and emotional legacies. 

1. Did Measles Appear on a Death Certificate?

2. Were There Local Epidemics That Affected My Family?

3. Were Multiple Children Died within a Short Time from One Another?

4. Were Local Institutions Affected by Measles? (asylum, orphanage, military barrack, etc)

5. Did the family move to avoid an epidemic?

Measles Are Back,  Cases in 2025

Note: For comparison, 16 outbreaks were reported during 2024.

1657 - 1963: They Died from Measles
Some believe tracking measles is new.  It isn’t! It has been tracked for over a century. In American colonial records, the word “measles” appears by the 17th century. Early U.S. medical writings from the late 1700s and early 1800s refer to measles by name, especially in the context of smallpox and scarlet fever as childhood illnesses. Researchers will also see “rubeola.”

The first recorded epidemic of measles in what would become the United States occurred in 1657 in Boston, Massachusetts Bay Colony. It was described in colonial diaries and town records. This was among the earliest documented community outbreaks of measles in North America.

Before federal tracking, disease statistics were local or state-led.

Washington (D.C.) Gazette, Jul 19, 1823

Cities like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia began keeping vital statistics in the mid-to-late 1800s, mostly focused on deaths. Some State Boards of Health (like Massachusetts in 1869) published reports mentioning outbreaks

1912. The U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS) formed from the Marine Hospital Service, began requiring state and city health departments to report weekly data on ten communicable diseases, including measles. This marked the start of national infectious disease surveillance in the United States. 

By 1912, over 30 states participated in reporting to the Weekly Morbidity Reports, later known as the Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Measles was responsible for 6,063 deaths in registration states the first year of 1912. This information was found in the Vital Statistics of the United States, 1912;" published by the Bureau of the Census;" published by the Bureau of the Census. This annual report includes mortality tables by cause of death  By 1933, all states were included in national death statistics.

11 Diseases reported in 1912 on the Ancestors

1. Measles
2. Smallpox
3. Typhoid fever
4. Diphtheria
5. Tuberculosis
6. Scarlet fever
7. Pertussis (whooping cough)
8. Poliomyelitis
9. Meningitis
10. Cholera
11. Influenza (1918)

Across the Pond: England. The USA was late. England had begun reporting the statistics of this disease as early as 1895. 

The Weekly Standard and Express, Blackburn, Lancashire, England, 16 Jun 1900

 In 1962, 408 children in the USA died of measles.  This was the year before the vaccine. 

 The Daily Democrat, May 08, 1965

1963. The measles vaccine was licensed in the U.S. in 1963. There was a national campaign to stop the deaths; 

    

Figure 2 The Daily Democrat, May 08, 1965, Lamar, MO

2000. By the year 2000, measles was declared eliminated (no continuous transmission) in the U.S., though outbreaks have occurred due to imported cases and vaccine hesitancy.

7 Resources for Measles Research

1. Coroner records
2. Death certificates
3. Obituaries printed in local newspapers,
4. Journals / Diaries,
5. Doctor notes that allow us to identify not only epidemics but also which of our ancestors died from Measles Check out State Archives for historical medical records
6. 1880 Federal Census, "Sick" column; confirmed by one of the above
7. 1850 -1880 Mortality Schedules. I will write later how these records can also be used for researching enslaved persons

1870 Plaquemines, Louisianam Mulatto, Des Roches Family

These schedules listed those who had died in the year preceding the census. There were also some state censuses in 1885 that included mortality schedules, specifically in Colorado, Florida, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, and South Dakota

Communicable diseases aren't reported as a grouping in the Federal Census, but researchers may uncover 1880 Federal Census "Sick" notes. 

1880 United States Federal Census, Kentucky

Sisters: Chella and Lydia Smith

Researchers may also find their ancestors listed in the 1850 or 1860 Mortality Schedules. 

 

After 28 days, Larkin Smith succumbed to Measles, 1850 Bledsoe, TN

Today, if not yet defunded, infectious disease epidemics in the U.S. are reported through a multi-level system involving local, state, and federal public health agencies, with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) at the national level. Historical reports for the CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Archives go back to 1912. The archives of Mortality Statistics may assist with analyzing epidemics in your ancestor's town / city. 

 

Stop them Mid-Sentence
When you are told that there is  no way to know how many died of measles in the past, I hope these easily accessible CDC reports come to mind: Visit the MMWR Weekly Reports Archive CDC’s Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR) Archives

Mortality Statistics, 1914

6 Places to Stumble Upon Ancestor's "Blindness"

Family historians and researchers know some of the Federal censuses noted Blindness and Partial Blindness of our ancestors, but how can we learn more about their vision problems? This is a response to the #1 question generated from the 2 Jul 2025 Linkedin Article titled :

Our Ancestors: Eye Health & Vision  Loss

6 Places to Stumble Upon "Blindness"

1. Death Records, In addition to seeing your ancestor's death notice as "Place of death" an Asylum or listed as an inmate in an institution for the blind, or a poorhouse record that states they were blind you may find them in the early census records. 

2.  Chuch and Community Financial Records. One of the early records that noted a church caring for the blind was that for "Blind Birdle."  This record was in the Pennsylvania Quaker books of 1777. The church was guaranteeing her care. We also see these types of records in Community Outreach Societies and and City and County Financial Records.

3. Asylums for the Poor, Blind, Indigent Records. There were also those early asylum like this one seen in the 1872 Westchester, NY map.

This was expected, since NY suffered more than most states with tuberculosis epidemics.  Scrofula tuberculosis [aka consumption] was often the cause of blindness. It is a form of tuberculosis affecting lymph nodes, primarily in the neck.

4. Obituaries. We may also learn of an ancestor's blindness in an obituary. The cause of the blindness or the event that caused it may be stated as it was in the 1927 obituary for Blind Boone. 

5. Wills and Probates. We also see information about our blind ancestors in Wills and Probates, where the family provided for their care. I have to say, these are my favorites.

Botetourt County, Virginia, 1858

6. The Blind Censuses. If you aren't familiar with the early census, you may wish to listen in to Off The Wall: Making Sense of the U.S.Census:

Although the early census, as early as 1830 had questions about blindness, some provide us with additional information. These early censuses held separate accounts of the “colored people,” Check out 1830-1840 below.

 1830 Census

Figure 8 1830 Federal Census

1840 Census

 

Figure 9 Total for County, Rutherford, NC

 These censuses were used for citizenry analysis and tax appropriations but were not as useful for individual family analysis.

 1850 Census

 

Figure 10 1850 Census

 1880 Census

The 1880 Federal Census, Column 16 allowed the census taker to place a tick on Blind, as done below for Maier Martin prior to analyzing the associated Questionnaire Supplemental Schedule.

 

Figure 11 Maier Martin Blind, Column 16

 The object of the 1880 Supplemental Schedule was to furnish material not only for a complete enumeration of the blind, but for an account of their condition. It was important that every inquiry regarding each case be answered. “Enumerators will, therefore, after making the proper entries upon the Population Schedule (No. 1), transfer the name (with Schedule page and number) of every blind person found, from Schedule No. 1 to this Special Schedule, in order to ask the additional questions indicated below.”

 “In this enumeration will be included not only the totally blind, but also the semi-blind. No person will be carried on this Schedule, however, who can see sufficiently well to read. For the distinction between the totally blind and the semi-blind see Note E; it is of the greatest importance to note this distinction with care, by making the proper entry in columns 10 or 11.”

 

Figure 12 Instructions for 1880

The Maier’s 1880 Defective Dependent Schedule, above example, was not completed properly, which seems to be common for African Americans' enumerations, but here is an example of a correctly completed schedule with useful or requested information:

Figure 13 Example for 1880 results for blind

In some cases, eye infections caused various inflammatory conditions in both eyes. Whooping cough is an example:

 

 In the example below, multiple family members, like the Morris family below, may have been named due to an infectious disease like tuberculosis.

Figure 14 U.S., 1880 Brown County, KS, Supplemental Schedule for Blind

In 1880 Brown County Kansas, like across the country, scrofula tuberculosis [aka consumption] was often the cause of blindness. “Scrofula is a form of tuberculosis affecting lymph nodes, primarily in the neck.

 1910 Census

Instructions:

If noted as blind, then there was further instruction under Education: